Introductions

• The introduction seeks to raise the issue, not settle it. Articulate why, in the context of existing thinking on the subject, your topic matters.
• Don’t try to do too much. Offer only the most relevant context, the most essential parts of your road map, and (disciplinary conventions permitting) a first rather than last claim.
• Always introduce a working hypothesis, frame it with appropriately cited background or other context, and specify your method or angle of approach.
• Especially in longer papers, you can use a procedural opening to forecast the organization clearly, but don’t let it distract you from also stating your claim.
• Experiment with opening gambits: challenge a common view, use your second-best example to set up the issue, or exemplify the problem with a narrative opening.

Conclusions

• Culminate—don’t just summarize. Offer your most fully evolved and qualified statement of the thesis or your final judgment on the questions posed in the introduction.
• Come full circle: revisit the introductory hypothesis and context. This strategy will unify your paper and locate it within an ongoing conversation on your topic.
• Your conclusion should not unqualifiedly claim more than your evidence has established, but it should leave the reader with further implications or speculations to ponder a send-off.
• Let your conclusion gradually escort the reader out of the paper. Like the introduction, it is a social site, so try to leave the reader with a positive last impression.

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